The Great Depression in Canada-Free-Samples-Myassignmenthelp.com

Question: Talk about the Great Depression in Canada by Waterloo. Answer: Outline This investigation centers around a Canadian article, The Great Depression in Canada composed by (Waterloo Region Record, 2013) which identifies with a melody from Quebec (linguee.com, 2017) that discussions about the travails of Canadians during the Great Depression. The article demonstrates the aftereffects of the extraordinary wretchedness that hit Canada to an extremely enormous degree during the 1930s (Waterloo Region Record, 2013). This article helps in clarifying and elucidating the tune; La Bolduc-Cavavenir descouragez-vous Pas, a Quebec. The melodies concentrated on the effects of this huge melancholy on the economy of Canada. According to the proof from the above article it is obvious that a great many people in this nation were extraordinarily influenced by this circumstance. The vast majority endured to an exceptionally incredible degree because of this emergency (MacGee, 2016). At that specific time the economy of Canada was subject to exchange as a significant monetary movement. They were additionally managing in outside exchange with their essential exchange accomplices being the Americans. At the point when America tried to expand the costs on their merchandise then the downturn circumstance in Canada declined to impossible degree making the greater part of the individuals endure. The vast majority of the biggest organizations in Canada got bankrupt, with no cash to pay their workers. The vehicle business in Canada was the one that was unequivocally influenced by this emergency since the vast majority of the vehicle organizations particularly those that sent out products fallen prompting a defeat of practically half in the assembling business. Besides, a large portion of individuals were influenced by hardship and dry spell that caused them to rely altogether upon the administration just as the enormous non-legislative associations that were prepared to offer assistance (Wilson, 2005). In spite of the fact that individuals lives were in question with the vast majority enduring, there was no prompt government helps to help decrease the downturn levels. Disregarding all the enduring to the Canadians, the political circumstances and culture were as yet kept up indicating that a great many people, however enduring, were prepared to least keep up their political foundations and culture. All the more shockingly no communism or socialism government frameworks came up. Th e degrees of joblessness were likewise so high because of misery making the administration look for some different approaches to support the jobless. One of the strategy utilized by the administration was to set up alleviation camps to support the jobless. This was a significant solution for this astounding circumstances. A portion of the significant results of the enormous discouragement incorporated the accompanying: Inadequate wares, joblessness issues, colossal costs on items, expanded degrees of destitution, low expectations for everyday life just as negative economy. Much the same as Canada, the effects of melancholy were crushing at a worldwide level. The Global Great misery. This pandemonium on the world economy began in the late 1920s, most presumably 1929 and went on for just about ten years. This was the biggest, longest and most monstrous sorrow that had ever influenced the industrialized world in the Western nations (Matziorinis, 2016). In spite of the fact that this emergency initially began in the USA, it had an extremely extraordinary effect on nearly the economy of each nation on the planet. The impacts of this emergency were likewise on the way of life and the public activity of the individuals of the USA. This downturn was positioned second in USA because of the common wars and it was the most noticeably terrible throughout the entire existence of America. The time this downturn happened its degree was not exactly comparable in the various nations of the world. Melancholy influenced the USA, Canada and the European nations for a serious long time. Then again, Japan and the Latin America encountered this downturn for little periods and to littler degrees. There were a few factors that steamed this downturn and this included; diminished interest for products, monetary mayhem and frenzies, troublesome arrangements by the administration thus some more. This prompted a decrease in the yield particularly in the USA (Uebele, 2015). The highest quality level conversion scale that connected practically all the nations of the world assumed a significant job in over sending the American downturn to practically all the nations on the planet. The greater part of the countries had the option to recoup from this emergency when they chose to quit utilizing the best quality level as the trade monetary forms and actualized the utilization of fiscal term s to execute organizations. To be sure, the extraordinary misery prompted essential changes in most financial organizations, monetary arrangements and financial hypotheses. The incredible melancholy in the United States started during summer in 1929. This circumstance intensified in the late 1929 and kept influencing the USA until 1933. The costs of merchandise and the yield went down unexpectedly (Uebele, 2015). The modern creation fell by 45% and the Gross household item fell by 33%. The discount value file (WCP) fell by 36% showing high emptying rates. However, these measurements are exhaustive bantered for their exactness, it was precisely observed that the pace of joblessness was above 21%. These insights when contrasted with that of another downturn in Canada show that the above misery was the most exceedingly terrible. Since in the mid 1980s to 1982, the total national output declined by 1.9% and the pace of joblessness was just shy of 9.9%. Furthermore, during this period the costs on items kept on rising, however the cost rate increment was very moderate. This circumstance is named as disinflation. The Great Britain was among the nations that battled with low development rate and high downturn rates from 1925 to 1930 since it needed to come back to the best quality level conversion scale with a high esteemed pound. It ought to be noted however that Britain was not influenced seriously by this downturn until during the 1930s. Indeed, even the decrease in the mechanical creation was simply just about 1/3 of what had happened in the USA. France additionally experienced only a short and little downturn in mid 1930s (Wilson, 2005). Their recuperation from this emergency in the 1932 to 1933 was anyway for only a brief period since the creation and costs on merchandise fell in the year 1933 to 1936. The economy of Germany tumbled down in the mid 1928, it balanced out and again fell in the late 1929. The decrease in the mechanical creation was only equivalent to that of the United States. Different Latin nations were additionally influenced by this circumstance in the late of the year 1928 and mid 1929, not long before the decrease in the U.S yield. Some less evolved countries, for example, Argentina and Brazil experienced gentle miseries while others were encountering this downturn to bigger degrees. The value collapse in the USA was likewise apparent in different nations. To be exact pretty much every industrialized country encountered a decay of the discount costs of 31% or significantly more between the years 1929 and the year 1933. Since the Japanese estimating structure was very adaptable, the collapse experienced in the 1930 to 1931 was strangely fast (Waterloo Region Record, 2013). The costs on the fundamental items that were exchanged around then likewise declined. For example, between September of 1929 and December of 1930 the cost on products, for example, silk, espresso, cotton, elastic was diminished by practically a large portion of the underlying cost. This prompted a decrease in the terms of exchange unexpectedly for the makers of this items. The recuperation from this downturn by the USA started in the spring 1933. The yield by the ventures developed quickly by 1935. The total national output increased by nearly 9% rate between the year 1933 to 1937. The yield had antagonistically fallen during the underlying times of this downturn that it stayed low for very a few periods (Wilson, 2005). In 1937 to 1938 the USA endured one more sadness, which was all around countered and the economy developed at a high rate. In 1942 the yield of the USA came back to the underlying since quite a while ago run level. The recuperation from this downturn by the remainder of the nations was very unique. The economy of Britain was balanced out soon after they chose to forsake the highest quality level in 1931 September, however the really recuperation started in the year 1932. A large portion of the nations in Latin America balanced out in the late 1931 and the mid 1932. Japan and Germany began recuperating in the year 1932 during fall (Waterloo Region Record, 2013). Canada and some other European nations resuscitated simultaneously exactly at the USA. Also, France, that had encountered late enormous sorrows begun recuperated late in 1938. Reasons for the extraordinary discouragement One of the significant reasons for this downturn in the USA was the decreased spending (total interest), that prompted diminished creation as the greater part of the merchandisers and makers noticed that there was an ascent in the inventories. The wellsprings of the reversible decrease in the size of spending in the USA was distinctive over the various reasons for wretchedness, yet this prompted a great decrease in the total interest (MacGee, 2016). The decrease in America was over sent to practically the various nations of the world. It ought to likewise be noticed that some different factors additionally prompted the melancholies in various nations of the world. The Interpretation of the Song in Relation to the Article The verses of the tune depended on the impacts that the extraordinary discouragement had on the Canadians. The expressions of the melodies were composed to show how the countrys economy could influence the lives of individuals (linguee.com, 2017). It shows how sadness influenced the lives of individuals in Canada. Furthermore, the tune shows the Canadian culture just as the administrations job during that riotous period. It additionally catches the alternate points of view in the economy, viewpoints of culture and furthermore the social points of view. This melody was accordingly attempting to show the financial, the social and the political points of view of the Canadian individuals around then. In passage one, there is a message of would like to all the individuals living in Canada. The words My Friends a

Does Religion Cause War Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Does Religion Cause War - Essay Example Convictions are the catchphrase of the definition. At the point when an individual or gathering has a lot of strict convictions, these convictions are their life. Strict convictions are the fundamental part reflecting choices that one may make. This implies strict convictions don't cause war yet may impact choices made after a war has just started. This can raise contention yet truth has demonstrated that most war has started because of region and assets and not exclusively due to religion. Religion with respect to convictions has been an issue of war since creation. Each individual practices some type of religion like Christianity, Judaism, or Atheism. Each type of religion is comparative as in the conviction is a religion and a lifestyle. Every religion is additionally very unique. Many like those in the Christian religion are abused for their strict convictions and can't be discovered acting in a Christian way. The oppression makes a war in the life of the Christian. They should p ick between respecting their convictions and being oppressed. The United States, as indicated by a survey by ABC news comprise of 83% Christians. This might be on the grounds that Christianity is so all around endured in America and Christians can openly rehearse Christianity. In different territories of the world Christianity isn't acknowledged and has been known to cause war. This war is all the more so between the Christian and Muslim people group.

All About Columbia, NYC and Bicycles COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog

All About Columbia, NYC and Bicycles COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog I may or may not live a further from campus than the average student, but I delight in my commute to Columbia: a seven-mile bike ride through New York City, 14 miles round trip.  Sounds terrifying exhilarating, right? Here’s why biking is great. Biking is Fast. New Yorkers tend to be impatient about getting places. Prime ways to get around campus: Walking (invest in comfortable shoes if you haven’t already); NYC subways and buses (get your MetroCard once you’re in NYC!); the (electric!) intercampus buses. But one of the fastest ways factoring in your route and traffic? Biking. From the Columbia School of Social Work on 122nd  St. to the Hungarian Pastry Shop on 111th, walking those 11 blocks will take 11 minutes, while biking will get you there in 4. Biking is Convenient. You don’t even need to own a bike, to bike. Citi Bike is NYC’s bike-sharing service (and the largest bike share program in the U.S.). The bike docks are located all across New York City and is ideal for quick trips. Their app also makes it convenient to find the nearest dock with real-time bike availability, and you can unlock a bike with the app. If you do own a bike, Columbia offers free bicycle parking enclosures, which also has bike repair tools and tire pumps (there’s an enclosure that is a 2-minute walk from the International Affairs Building). Don’t want to show up sweaty to class? You can get a Commuter Shower Pass at the Dodge Fitness Center for just $38 a semester. Columbia also offers bicycle store discounts, free bike registration with public safety, and many more perks. Biking is Fun. Of all the cardio exercises, biking has to be near the top in terms of enjoyability. New York City has some beautiful bike paths: The Hudson River Greenway trail, which is separated from car traffic, is on the West Side, and Central Park is teeming with cyclists. This is even without all the trails in Brooklyn! View this post on Instagram Today this south-facing Tribeca perspective features greenery and active bikeway. Swipe to see this view before the Park! #HRPK #HRPK20 #TBT A post shared by Hudson River Park (@hudsonriverpark) on May 31, 2018 at 12:45pm PDT If you’re already on campus or will be here before Orientation, take advantage of Summer Streets.  On the first three Saturdays of August, 6.9 miles of Park Avenue will be closed to cars and open only to cyclists, pedestrians and joggers. You can bike through NYC landmarks normally closed to pedestrian traffic like Grand Central Terminal, and there will be free food, activities and giveaways along the route. View this post on Instagram Summer Streets returns this weekendâ€"show us your pics using #ShareGCT! ??: @myst3riousboy @samanthadongnyc @ibookery @evannclingan @goemonfromjapan A post shared by Grand Central Terminal (@grandcentralnyc) on Aug 11, 2017 at 9:05am PDT Always remember to put Safety First when youre biking.  The Morningside Heights neighborhood is easier to bike in since there’s less traffic and pedestrians relative to busy areas like Times Square. Still, this is the big city, and you should always put safety first: Wear. A. Helmet. Youre going to really need your brain for Columbia. If you dont have a helmet, use your Columbia ID at nearby bicycle stores for a 10% discount. Obey traffic rules and be predictable. NYC is a busy and dense place, so along with following traffic rules, don’t make any sudden swerves in and out of traffic. It’s dangerous and the traffic around you can’t always account for it. Be Aware. Someone flings open their taxi door into the bike lane, or a pigeon flies into your face you can’t predict what’s going to happen around you, so be aware. This means no headphones or texting while biking, too. A bike-friendly Columbia means less traffic and parking congestion and an improvement in health of the University.  Improving and encouraging healthy commute alternatives will be an ongoing mission on campus as part of our Sustainability Plan. So grab your helmet and have fun exploring New York City by bike!

Spanish Diminutive Suffixes

Just because something is diminutive in Spanish doesnt necessarily mean its small. Diminutives May Soften Meaning or Show Affection Spanish speakers frequently use the diminutive suffixes such as -ito not only to indicate size but also to make a word less harsh or to indicate affection. Just as you can imagine someone referring to a 6-foot-tall adult son as my little boy or to a full-grown beloved pet as a doggy, so it is that the Spanish diminutives, although often translated using the English word little, often indicate more about the speakers feelings toward the person or object than to its size. The most common Spanish diminutive suffixes are -ito and -cito along with their feminine equivalents, -ita and -cita. In theory, these suffixes can be added to almost any noun, and they are sometimes used with adjectives and adverbs as well. The rules arent hard and fast as to which suffix is used; the tendency is that words ending in -a, -o or -te form the diminutive by dropping the final vowel and adding -ito or -ita, while -cito or -ecito is added to other words. Also commonly used as a diminutive suffix are -illo and -cillo along with their feminine equivalents, -illa and -cilla. Other diminutive suffixes include -ico, -cico, -uelo, -zuelo, -ete, -cete, -à ­n and -ià ±o along with their feminine equivalents. Many of these suffixes are more popular in some regions than others. For example, the -ico and -cico endings are quite common in Costa Rica, and its residents are nicknamed ticos as a result. The diminutive suffixes tend to be a spoken phenomenon of Spanish more than a written one, and they are more common in some areas than others. In general, though, they are used far more than English diminutive endings such as the -y or -ie of words such as doggy or jammies. You should keep in mind some words in diminutive form may not be understood the same way in all areas, and that their meanings can vary with the context in which they are used. Thus the translations given below should be seen as examples only and not as the only translations possible. List of Diminutive Uses Here are the most common ways the diminutive suffixes are used in Spanish: To indicate something is small: casita (little house, cottage), perrito (puppy or little dog), rosita (little rose, rose blossom)To indicate something is charming or endearing: mi abuelita (my dear grandmother), un cochecito (a cute little car), papito (daddy), amiguete (pal)To provide a nuance of meaning, especially with adjectives and adverbs: ahorita (right now), cerquita (right next to), lueguito (quite soon), gordito (chubby)To give a friendly tone to a sentence: Un momentito, por favor. (Just a moment, please.) Quisiera un refresquito. (Id like just a soft drink.)  ¡Despacito! (Easy does it!)To talk to very young children: pajarito (birdy), camisita (shirty), tontito (silly), vaquita (cowie)To indicate something is unimportant: dolorcito (tiny ache), mentirita (fib), reyezuelo (petty king), me falta un centavito (Im just a penny short)To form a new word (not necessarily a diminutive of the original): mantequilla (butter), panecillo (bread roll), bolsillo (pocket), cajetilla ( packet), ventanilla (ticket office), carbonilla (cinder), caballitos (merry-go-round), cabecilla (ringleader), nudillo (knuckle), vaquilla (heifer), de mentirijillas (as a joke) Note: The diminutive -ito ending should not be confused with the -ito ending of some irregular past participles such as frito (fried) and maldito (cursed). Sample Sentences Using Diminutives El gatito es frà ¡gil y es completamente dependiente de su madre. (The kitten is fragile and is completedly dependent on its mother.) Yo sà © de una chamaquita que todos las maà ±anitas ... (I know of a dear girl who every morning ... — lyrics from the childrens song El telefonito or The Telephone.)  ¿Quà © tal, guapita? (How are you, cutie?) Disfruta de cervecita y las mejores tapas por Madrid ...  ¡por 2,40 euros! (Enjoy a nice beer and the best tapas in Madrid — for 2.40 euros! Mis amigos me llaman Calvito. (My friends call me Baldy.) Tengo una dudita con la FAQ que no entiendo. (I have a quick question about the FAQ that I dont understand.) Es importante limpiar la naricita de tu bebà © cuando se resfrà ­e. (It is important to clean your babys nose when she gets a cold.)

Christian Worldview - 1594 Words

Critical Thinking Let us ponder about how other religions worldviews relate to the Biblical worldview. There are three main areas or types of worldviews, Pantheists (Hinduism, Buddhism), Secularism (naturalism), and Theism (Christianity, Islam, Judaism). I will answer 5 basic questions on just one of the non-Christian worldviews and then compare it to the Biblical worldview. Part one will be about Buddhism and part two will compare Buddhism and the Biblical worldview. The questions to be answered are: 1. The Question of Origin. 2. The Question of Identity. 3. The Question of Meaning/Purpose. 4. The Question of Destiny. Part One The Buddhist people are a peaceful people with a simple worldview, but it is quite†¦show more content†¦[xi] Next we need to know, what is our meaning in life? Jesus in John 17:3 states our meaning is â€Å"that they may know You, the only true God, and Jesus Christ whom You have sent.† [xii] Our purpose is to know God. We should seek Him by reading His word and have a close personal relationship with Him. Buddhism does not have a personal god. They feel we need to treat every living thing the same way to reach Nirvana. Now let’s answer the question of morality. We get our morality from God. God is the standard by which this is based. God is the ultimate good and there is no other place that we should seek to justify our actions. Jesus gave us the greatest commandments as stated in Matt. 22:37-38 â€Å"You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all you mind.† And it continues, â€Å"You shall love your neighbor a s yourself.† If we follow these commandments, we will have no problem distinguishing between right and wrong. The Buddhists follow the Eight Paths, which is very close to â€Å"love you neighbor as yourself† (Matt. 22:38), but they look internally to the god within them for guidance. [xiii] Finally, how does the Biblical worldview discuss destiny? This is simple, if we accept Jesus into our hearts and follow HisShow MoreRelatedChristian Worldview Essay Paper1121 Words   |  5 PagesChristian Worldview Paper – Second Draft Christine Reiter CWV 101 – Christian World View 11/25/2012 Dr. Jim Uhley My Worldview My worldview is formed by my relationships, challenges and choices I have made, environmental surroundings and my family influence, all which have impressed on me my views of the world. According to Merriam-Webster’s Learners Dictionary, the definition of â€Å"Worldview† is â€Å"The way someone thinks about the world†. Although this simple phrase seems to the point, itRead MoreChristian Worldview : A Worldview864 Words   |  4 Pages â€Å"What is a worldview? A worldview comprises one s collection of presuppositions, convictions and values from which a person tries to understand and make sense out of the world and life. 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That is why Paul’s letter to the Roman church is such as significant demonstration of the Gospel and the Christian Worldview andRead MoreChristian Worldview As A Student1448 Words   |  6 PagesThe Christian Worldview as a Student Christian worldview opens the doors to the mind of students and cultures from all around the world. In this course, topics from who is God or what is the reality of human nature is gone through. Giving the student the ability to weigh his or her personal views against the Christian worldview presented, not persuade or to change their views but to give a chance to develop their individual views while searching for the reasons for their worldview. From the individualRead MoreChristian Perspective : Christian Worldview And Maturity1273 Words   |  6 Pages Christian World View The thought of Christian world view probably never came across our minds prior to salvation. But it happens to be reflect everything we say or do whether we know it or not. 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Christians are influenced by other religions because of the lack of understanding the expectations and the fact of being accountable for theirRead MoreEssential Elements Of The Christian Worldview Are Faith,1589 Words   |  7 PagesEssential elements of the Christian worldview are Faith, Love, Forgiveness and Living in Christ. These key elements are fundamental to Christ’s teachings and also reflect my own worldview. These four elements are an integral part of a Christian believer’s life and defines our relationship with God. The fourth element, Living in Christ, is comprised of many sub-elements like praise, prayer, and bearing witness. These sub-elements could be described as fruits of a Christianâ€⠄¢s believer’s daily lifeRead MoreWorldview : A Christian Worldview1578 Words   |  7 Pagesdiscussed the different worldviews that an individual may have. This class has taught me that a worldview is how an individual understands the world and their place in it. â€Å"A worldview consist of what a person believes to be real and true, what a person values, how a person makes decisions, and what forms a person’s desires, longings, and goals† (Fuller, Lecture One). An individual’s worldview is the motivating force behind their every emotion, decision, and action. A worldview is what helps an individualRead MoreThe Worldview Of The Christian Worldview955 Words   |  4 Pagesword worldview means how an individual view the world around them. A worldview is a complete system of how we perceive the world and process it. According to Waddell (2014), â€Å"a worldview is a foundational set of assumptions to which one commits that serves as a framework for un derstanding and interpreting reality and deeply shapes one’s behavior.† The worldview of an individual is usually influenced by the person’s cultural background, life experiences, and upbringing. 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Buying of Private Brands and Manufacture of Brands Free Essays

Johanson and Burt article provides an analysis on recent decades’ trend of private labeled brands in European retail outlets—the trend is also gaining pace in North America. The authors are specifically interested in finding similarities and differences of purchasing processes of private brands verses those owned by independent manufacturers. Private brands are hereby taken to mean good, usually foodstuffs that bear retailers name. We will write a custom essay sample on Buying of Private Brands and Manufacture of Brands or any similar topic only for you Order Now Johanson and Burt highlight find that initial introduction of these brands into retailers’ shelves was marked with low quality and low prices. However, continued trade of these products has gradually been companied by improved quality to an extent of private brands becoming part of mainstream retailing business. For instance, private brands constitute of 40-50 percent of merchandise sold in British retail outlets (Johanson Burt 2000). This is in consideration that competitive pressure in retailing industry has sent participants out looking for ways to increase profit margins. Private brands have also been mentioned as sources of more variety of merchandise and therefore consumer choice at respective outlets (Bass Binder 2008). Players in the industry have therefore embarked on competing on the provision of low priced private brands, as well as increasing these brands’ loyalty in their already existing customer base. The purchasing of own private brands comes with greater responsibilities on companies and therefore complicate individual retail outlets’ operations. This is in consideration the on other brands, retailers are used to just ordering merchandise from respective manufacturers, but the new approach require retail management to be involved in every step of product development. For instance, retailers have to bore the responsibility of designing private brands, looking for manufacturers (or processors in the case of foodstuffs) and transporters to individual stores, as well as dealing with non sold items. The authors expressed fear that preoccupation with the above processes could derail retailers from their traditional occupation of buying and selling of merchandise and therefore suffer through decreased profit margins, especially because of the extra costs involved. However, private brands have the advantage of the greater amount of market information held by respective retailers. Indeed, shopping chains are more likely to undertaking deep research on merchandise that would fetch most profit margins as private brands (Mattsson 2008). Secondly, the heavy market powers held by private owners are more likely to attract discounts from manufactures and other businesses involved. Many are the companies that scrabble for contracts for manufacture or processing of private brands. Johanson and Burt (2000) have mentioned that success in private brands depend on three forms of integration within individual retail chains. First is vertical integration, which means coordination between retail chain and individual store outlet—this is important in developing efficient processes of moving private brands to from low demand to high demand territories. Second is the horizontal integration which comes to play when the retail chain has many stores that need to interact with each other. Efficient integration between different stores in the same chain and stakeholders is therefore central to successful private branding in retail stores. Johanson and Burt have did, in their article find integration as what has caused British chains to reap higher revenues through private brands. References Bass, A. Binder, S., 2008, Retail Space Invaders, Available At:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.brandchannel.com/papers_review.asp?sp_id=775 Mattsson, A., 2008, Global Retailers Increase Private Brand Goods, Available At:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.intertek- etlsemko.com/portal/page/cust_portal/ITK_PGR/ABOUT_INTERTEK_ETL_PG/  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   OUR_NEWSROOM_PG/UPDATE_NEWSLETTER_PG/Update_2002/SUM02_  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   global_retail_article How to cite Buying of Private Brands and Manufacture of Brands, Papers

New Historicism free essay sample

The New Historicism [March 31, 2009] Chapter 1. Origins of New Historicism [00:00:00] Professor Paul Fry: So today we turn to a mode of doing literary criticism which was extraordinarily widespread beginning in the late seventies and into the eighties, called the New Historicism. It was definable in ways that Ill turn to in a minute and, as I say, prevalent to a remarkable degree everywhere. It began probably at the University of California at Berkeley under the auspices, in part, of Stephen Greenblatt, whose brief essay youve read for today. Greenblatt and others founded a journal, still one of the most important and influential journals in the field of literary study, calledRepresentationsalways has been and still is an organ for New Historicist thought. Its a movement which began primarily preoccupied with the Early Modern period, the so-called Renaissance. The New Historicism is, in effect, responsible for the replacement of the term Renaissance with the term Early Modern. We will write a custom essay sample on New Historicism or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Its influence, however, quickly did extend to other fields, some fields perhaps more than others. It would be, I think, probably worth a lecture that Im not going to give to explain why certain fields somehow or another seem to lend themselves more readily to New Historicist approaches than others. I think its fair to say that in addition to the early modern period, the three fields that have been most influenced by the New Historicism are the eighteenth century, British Romanticism, and Americanist studies from the late colonial through the republican period. That agethe emergence of print culture, the emergence of the public sphere as a medium of influence, and the distribution of knowledge in the United Stateshas been very fruitfully studied from New Historicist points of view. So those are the fields that are most directly influenced by this approach. When we discuss Jerome McGanns essay, youll see how it influences Romantic studies. Now the New Historicism wasand this probably accounts for its remarkable popularity and influence in the period roughly from the late seventies through the early ninetieswas a response to an increasing sense of ethical ailure in the isolation of the text as it was allegedly practiced in certain forms of literary study. Beginning with the New Criticism through the period of deconstruction, and the recondite discourse of Lacan and others in psychoanalysis, there was a feeling widespread among scholars, especially younger scholars, that somehow or another, especially in response to pressing concerns-post-Vietnam, concerns with globalization, concerns with the distribution of power and global capitalall of these concerns nspired what one can only call a guilt complex in academic literary scholarship and led to a return to history. It was felt that a kind of ethical tipping point had been arrived at and that the modes of analysis that had been flourishing needed to be superseded by modes of analysis in which history and the political implications of what one was doing became prominent and central. I have to say that in debates of this kind theres always a considerable amount of hot air, perhaps on both sides. In many ways its not the case that the so-called isolated approaches really were isolated. Deconstruction in its second generation wrote perpetually about history and undertook to orient the techniques of deconstruction to an understanding of history, just to give one example. The New Historicism, on the other hand, evinced a preoccupation with issues of form and textual integrity that certainly followed from the disciplines, the approaches, that preceded them. Also to a large degreeand 1 of 10 03/24/2012 11:47 ?.? PRINT Open Yale Courses http://oyc. yale. edu/transcript/469/engl-300 this is, of course, true of a good many other approaches that were about to investigate, approaches based in questions of identity alsoto a large degree, appropriated the language of the generation of the deconstructionists and, to a certain extent, certain underlying structuralist ideas having to do with the binary relationship between self nd other, and binary relationships among social entities, as opposed to linguistic entities; but still, as I say, essentially inheriting the structure of thought of preceding approaches. So, as I say, it was in a polemical atmosphere and at a moment of widespread self-doubt in the academic literary profession that the New Historicism came into its owna response, as I say, to the isolation of the text by certain techniques and approaches to it. Chapter 2. The New Historicist Method and Foucault [00:06:16] Now very quickly: the method of New Historical analysis fell into a pattern, a very engaging one, one thats wonderfully exemplified by the brief introduction of Greenblatt that I have asked you to read: a pattern of beginning with an anecdote, often rather far afield, at least apparently rather far afield, from the literary issues that are eventually turned to in the argument of a given essay. For example: a dusty miller was walking down the road, thinking about nothing in particular, when he encountered a bailiff, then certain legal issues arise, and somehow or another the next thing you know were talking about King Lear. This rather marvelous, oblique way into literary topics was owing to the brilliance in handling it of Greenblatt, in particular, and Louis Montrose and some of his colleagues. This technique became a kind of a hallmark of the New Historicism. In the long run, of course, it was easy enough to parody it. It has been subjected to parody and, in a certain sense, has been modified and chastened by the prevalence of parody; but it nevertheless, I think, shows you something about the way New Historicist thinking works. The New Historicism is interested, following Foucaultand Foucault is the primary influence on the New Historicism. I wont say as much about this today as I might feel obliged to say if I werent soon be going to return to Foucault in the context of gender studies, when we take up Foucault and Judith Butler togetherbut I will say briefly that Foucaults writing, especially his later writing, is about the pervasiveness, the circulation through social orders, of what he calls power. Now power is not justor, in many cases in Foucault, not even primarily the power of vested authorities, the power of violence, or the power of tyranny from above. Power in Foucaultthough it can be those things and frequently isis much more pervasively and also insidiously the way in which knowledge circulates in a culture: that is to say, the way in which what we think, what we think that it is appropriate to thinkacceptable thinkingis distributed by largely unseen forces in a social network or a social system. Power, in other words, in Foucault is in a certain sense knowledge, or to put it another way, it is the explanation of how certain forms of knowledge come to existknowledge, by the way, not necessarily of something thats true. Certain forms of knowledge come to exist in certain places. So all of this is central to the work of Foucault and is carried over by the New Historicists; hence the interest for them of the anecdotes. Start as far afield as you can imaginably start from what you will finally be talking about, which is probably some textual or thematic issue in Shakespeare or in the Elizabethan masque or whatever the case may be. Start as far afield as you possibly can from that, precisely in order to show the pervasiveness of a certain kind of thinking, the pervasiveness of a certain social constraint or limitation on freedom. If you can show how pervasive it is, you reinforce and justify the Foucauldian idea that power is, as Ive said, an insidious and ubiquitous mode of circulating knowledge. All of this is implicit, sometimes explicit, in New Historicist approaches to what they do. 2 of 10 03/24/2012 11:47 ?.? Open Yale Courses http://oyc. yale. edu/transcript/469/engl-300 Chapter 3. The Reciprocal Relationship Between History and Discourse [00:10:56] So as I said, Foucault is the crucial antecedent and of course, when its a question of Foucault, literature as we want to conceive of itperhaps generically or as a particular kind of utterance as opposed to other kindsdoes tend to collapse back into the broader or more general notion of discourse, because its by means of discourse that power circulates knowledge. Once again, despite the fact that New Historicism wants to return us to the real world, it nevertheless acknowledges that that return is language bound. It is by means of language that the real world shapes itself. Thats why for the New Historicistand by this means, Ill turn in a moment to the marvelous anecdote with which Greenblatt begins the brief essay that Ive asked you to readthats why the New Historicist lays such intense emphasis on the idea that the relationship between discoursecall it literature if you like, you ight as welland history is reciprocal. Yes, history conditions what literature can say in a given epoch. History is an important way of understanding the valency of certain kinds of utterance at certain times. In other words, history isas its traditionally thought to be by the Old Historicism, and Ill get to that in a minutehistory is a background to discourse or literature. But by the same token there is an agency, that is to say a capacity, to circulate power in discourse in turn. Call it literature: I am Richard II, know you not that? says Queen Elizabeth when at the time of the threatened Essex Uprising she gets wind of the fact that Shakespeares Richard II is being performed, as she believes, in the public streets and in private houses. In other words, wherever there is sedition, wherever there are people who want to overthrow her and replace her with the Earl of Essex, the pretender to the throne, Richard II is being performed. Well, now this is terrifying to Queen Elizabeth because she knowsshes a supporter of the theatershe knows that Richard II is about a king who has many virtues but a certain weakness, a political weakness and also a weakness of temperamentthe kind of weakness that makes him sit upon the ground and tell sad tales about the death of kings, that kind of weakness, who is then usurped by Bolingbroke who became Henry IV, introducing a whole new dynasty and focus of the royal family in England. Queen Elizabeth says, Theyre staging this play because theyre trying to compare me with Richard II in preparation for deposing me, and who knows what else they might do to me? This is a matter of great concern. In other words, literatureFredric Jameson says history hurtsliterature hurts, too. [laughs] Literature, in other words, has a discursive agency that affects history every bit as much as history affects literature: literature out there, and theaterespecially if it escapes the confines of the playhouse because, as Greenblatt argues, the playhouse has a certain mediatory effect which defuses the possibilities of sedition. One views literary representation in the playhouse with a certain objectivity, perhaps, that is absent altogether when interested parties take up the same text and stage it precisely for the purpose of fomenting rebellion. Literature, especially when escaped from its conventional confines, becomes a very, very dangerous or positive influence, depending on your point of view on the course of history. So the relationship between history and discourse is reciprocal. Greenblatt wants to argue with a tremendous amount of stress and, I think, effectiveness that the New Historicism differs from the Old Historicism. This is on page 1443 in the right-hand column. John Dover Wilson, a traditional Shakespeare scholar and a very important one, is the spokesperson in Greenblatts scenario for the Old Historicism. The view Im about to quote is that of John Dover Wilson, a kind of consensus about the relationship between literature and history: Modern historical scholarship [meaning Old Historicism] has assured Elizabeth [laughs] that she had [this is the right-hand column about two thirds of the way down] [laughs] nothing to worry 3 of 10 03/24/2012 11:47 ?.? Open Yale Courses http://oyc. yale. edu/transcript/469/engl-300 about: Richard II is not at all subversive but rather a hymn to Tudor order. The play, far from encouraging thoughts of rebellion, regards the deposition of the legitimate king as a sacrilegious act that drags the country down into the abyss of chaos; that Shakespeare and his audience regarded Bolingbroke as a usurper, declares J. Dover Wilson, is incontestable. But in 1601 neither Queen Elizabeth nor the Earl of Essex were so sure†¦ Greenblatt wins. Its a wonderful example. Its the genius of Greenblatt to choose examples that are so telling and so incontrovertible. We know Queen Elizabeth was scared [laughs] on this occasion, which makes it quite simply the case that John Dover Wilson was wrong to suppose that Richard II was no threat to her. Its not at all the point that a broad, ideological view of Richard II was any different from what Wilson said; that was perfectly true. Bolingbroke wasconsidered a usurper. It was considered tragic that Richard II was deposed; but that doesnt mean that the text cant be taken over, commandeered and made subversive. Wilson doesnt acknowledge this because his view of the relationship between history and literature is only that history influences literature, not that the influence can be reciprocal. You see, thats how it is that the New Historicism wants to define itself over and against the Old Historicism. If there is a political or ideological consensus about the legitimacy of monarchy, the divine right of kings, the legitimacy of succession under the sanction of the Church of England and all the rest of itall of which is anachronistic when youre thinking about these history playsif there is this broad consensus, thats it, thats what the play means according to the Old Historicism, even though plainly you can take the plot of the play and completely invert those values, which is what the Essex faction does in staging it in those places where Queen Elizabeth suspects that its being staged. Chapter 4. The Historian and Subjectivity [00:19:24] Okay. Now another way in which the Old Historicism and the New Historicism differcorrectly, I think according to Greenblatt is that in the Old Historicism there is no questionIm looking at page 1444, the right-hand column about a third of the way downof the role of the historians own subjectivity. It is not thought, says Greenblatt, to be the product of the historians interpretation†¦ History is just what is. One views it objectively and thats that. Now notice here that were back with Gadamer. Remember that this was Gadamers accusation of historicism, the belief of historicismwhat Greenblatt calls the Old Historicismthat we can bracket out our own historical horizon and that we can eliminate all of our own historical prejudices in order to understand the past objectively in and for itself. This is not the case, said Gadamer, remember. Gadamer said that interpretation must necessarily involve the merger of horizons, the horizon of the other and my own horizon as an interpreter. I cannot bracket out my own subjectivity. Okay. If thats the case, then Gadamer anticipates Greenblatt in saying that the naivete of the Old Historicism is its supposition that it has no vested interest in what its talking aboutthat is to say, its supposition that it wants history to accord in one way or another with its own preconceptions, but isnt aware of it. The anecdoteagain, wonderfully placed in the polemical argumentthat after all, John Dover Wilson delivered himself of these opinions about Richard II before a group of scholars in Germany in 1939 is, after all, ather interesting. Hitler is about to be the Bolingbroke of Germany. John Dover Wilson wants his audience to say, Hey, wait a minute. Stick with vested authority. [laughs] You have a weak democracy, but it is a democracy. Dont let it get away from you. And so he is speaking, the horse already having escaped from the barn, in this reassuring way about German politics as a means of sort of reinforcing his own view of the politics of Elizabethan England. of 10 03/24/2012 11:47 ?.? Open Yale Courses http://oyc. yale. edu/transcript/469/engl-300 But this, Greenblatt supposes, is something about which he has very little self-consciousness. That is to say, his own interest, as of course it should be on this occasion, is in the preservation of vested authority, and his own interest then folds back into his understanding of Elizabethan ideology in such a way that it can conform to that interest. He has, in other words, as we say today, a hidden agenda and is very little aware of it, unlike the New Historicist who, following Gadamer in this respect, is fully cognizant of the subjective investment that leads to a choice of interest in materials, a way of thinking about those materials, and a means of bringing them to life for us today and into focus. In other words, its okay for Greenblatt, as it was for Gadamermuch to the horror of E. D. Hirschto find the significance of a text, as opposed to the meaning of a text. The significance of the text is that it has certain kinds of power invested in it. Those kinds of power are still of interest to us today, still of relevance to whats going on in our own world. All of this is taken up openly as a matter of self-consciousness by the New Historicists in ways that, according to Greenblatt and his colleagues, were not available consciously in the older Historicism. Now the world as the New Historicism sees itand after Ive said this, Ill turn to McGannis essentially a dynamic interplay of power, networks of power, and subversion: that is to say, modes of challenging those networks even within the authoritative texts that generate positions of power. The Elizabethan masque, for example, which stages the relation of court to courtier, to visitor, to hanger-on in wonderfully orchestrated ways, is a meansbecause its kind of poly-vocalof containing within its structure elements of subversion, according to the argument thats made about these things: the same with court ritual itself, the same with the happenstance that takes place once a year in early modern England, in which the Lord of Misrule is so denominated and ordinary authority is turned on its ear for one day. Queen for a day, as it were, is something that is available to any citizen once a year. These are all ways of defusing what they, in fact, bring into visibility and consciousnessmainly the existence, perhaps the inevitable existence, of subversion with respect to structures and circulatory systems of power. Its t Chapter 5. Jerome McGann and Bakhtin [00:26:12] his relationship between power and subversion that the New Historicism, especially in taking up issues of the Early Modern period, tends to focus on and to specialize in. Now its not wholly clear that Jerome McGann has ever really thought of himself as a New Historicist. He has been so designated by others, but I think there is one rather important difference in emphasis, at least between what hes doing and what Greenblatt and his colleagues do in the Early Modern period. McGann doesnt really so much stress the reciprocity of history and discourse. He is interested in the presence of history, the presence of immediate social and also personal circumstances in the history of a text. His primary concern is withat least in this essaytextual scholarship. He himself is the editor of the new standard works of Byron. He has also done a standard works of Swinburne, and he has been a vocal and colorful spokesperson of a certain point of view within the recondite debates of textual scholarship: whether textual scholarship ought to produce a text thats an amalgam of a variety of available manuscripts and printed texts; whether the text it produces ought to be the last and best thoughts of the authorthats the position that McGann seems to be taking in this essayor whether the text, on the contrary, ought to be the first burst of inspiration of the author. All the people who prefer the earliest versions of Wordsworths Prelude, for example, would favor that last point of view. In 5 of 10 03/24/2012 11:47 ?.? Open Yale Courses http://oyc. yale. edu/transcript/469/engl-300 other words, McGann is making a contribution here not least to the debates surrounding editing and the production of authoritative scholarly texts. Its in that context that the remarks hes making about Keats have to be understood. I think the primary influence on McGann is not so much Foucault, then, with the sense of the circulation of power back and forth between history and literary discourse, as it is Bakhtin, whom he quotes on pages eighteen and nineteen; or whose influence he cites, I should say rather, in a way that, I think, does pervade what you encounter in reading what he then goes on to say at the bottom of page eighteen in the copy center reader: What follows [says McGann] is a summary and extrapolation of certain key ideas set forth by the so-called Bakhtin School of criticism, a small group of Marxist critics from the Soviet Union who made an early attack upon formalist approaches to poetry [just as he, McGann, is, and as the New Historicists are themselves, in their turn, doing]. The Bakhtin Schools socio-historical method approaches all language utterancesincluding poemsas phenomena marked with their concrete origins and history. That is to say, phenomena voiced by the material circumstances that produce them or phenomena, in other words, in which the voice of the Romantic solitary individual is not really that voice at all, but is rather the polyglossal infusion of a variety of perspectives, including ideological perspectives, shaping that particular utterance and also, in the case of the textual scholar, shaping which of a variety of manuscripts will be chosen for publication and for central attention in the tradition of the reception of a given text. So all of this McGann takes to be derived from Bakhtin rather than from Foucault. I do think thats a significant difference between our two authors. Chapter 6. McGann on Keats [00:30:28] Now McGanns most important contribution to the return to history of the seventies and eighties is a short book calledThe Romantic Ideology, and this bookwell, what it is is an attack on Romanticism. At least its an attack on certain widely understood and received ideas about Romanticismideas ith which, by the way, I dont agree, but this course isnt about me. The Romantic Ideology is an amalgam of two titles. One of them is the important early critique of Romanticism by the German poet and sometime Romantic Heinrich Heine called Die romantische Schule, or The Romantic School, in which the subjectivity, even solipsism, and the isolation from social concern and from unfolding historical processes of the Romantic poets is emphasized and criticized. In addition to thatthats where the word Romantic comes from in the title The Romantic Ideologythe other title that it amalgamates is Marxs book The German Ideology, which is about many things but is in particular about Lumpenproletariat intellectuals who think with Hegel still following Hegel despite believing themselves to be progressivewho think with Hegel that thought produces material circumstances rather than the other way around: in other words people, in short, who are idealists and therefore, under this indictment, also Romantic. McGanns title, as I say, cleverly amalgamates these two other titles and sets the agenda for this short book, which is an attack not just on Romanticism but on what he believes to be our continued tendency still to be in Romanticism, still to be Romantic. There his particular object of attack is the so-called Yale school, which is still under attack in the essay that youve read for today. Paul de Man and Geoffrey Hartmans well-known essay on Keatss To Autumn are singled out for particular scorn and dispraise, all sort of on the grounds that yes, its all very well to read Romanticism, to come to understand it, and even to be fascinated by it; but we cant be Romantic. In other words, our reading of Romanticismif we are to be social animals, politically engaged, and invested in the world as a social communitymust 6 of 10 03/24/2012 11:47 ?.? Open Yale Courses http://oyc. yale. edu/transcript/469/engl-300 necessarily be an anti-Romantic critique. This is, as I say, still essentially the position taken up by McGann. All right. So Ive explained the ways in which he differs from Greenblatt in leaning more toward Bakhtin than toward Foucault. I have explained that McGann is engaged primarily in talking about issues of textual scholarship in this particular essay, that he defends Keatss last deliberate choices, that he believes the so-called indicator text of 1820 of La Belle Dame Sans Merci is Keatss last deliberate choice, as opposed to the 1848 text published by Monckton Milnes in the edition of Keatss poems that he brought out at that time. Now I think that in the time remaining to sort of linger over McGann, I do want to say a few things about what he says about Keats. I want to emphasize that his general pronouncements about the historicity of texts, about the permeation of texts by the circumstances of their production, their conditioning by ideological factors, is unimpeachable. It seems to me that this is a necessary approach at least to have in mind if not, perhaps, necessarily to emphasize in ones own work of literary scholarship. The idea that a text just falls from a treeif anybody ever had that idea, by the way [laughs] is plainly not a tenable one, and the opposite idea that a text emerges from a complex matrix of social and historical circumstances is certainly a good one. So if one is to criticize, again its not a question of criticizing his basic pronouncements. It seems to me nothing could be said really against them. The trouble is that in the case of McGannwho is a terrific, prominent Romantic scholar with whom one, I suppose, hesitates to disagreeeverything he says about the text that he isolates for attention in this essay is simply, consistently, wrong. Its almost as if by compulsion that he says things that are wrong about these texts, and the reason I asked you in my e-mail last night to take a look at them, if you get a chance, is so that these few remarks that I make now might have some substance. Take for example La Belle Dame Sans Merci. In the first place, who says we only read the 1848 text? A scholarly editionand his main object of attack is Jack Stillingers scholarly edition of Keatsgives you basically a variorum apparatus. Yeah, maybe it gives you a particular text in bold print, but it gives you the variant text in smaller print in a footnote. It doesnt withhold the variant text from you. It says, No, look, theres this too. Take your choice. Really the atmosphere of a variorum scholarly edition is an atmosphere of take your choice, not a kind of tyrannical imposition on the public of a particular version of the text. Everybody knows the 1820 Indicator text. What can ail thee, wretched wight? is at least as familiar to me, as a Romanticist, as What can ail thee, knight at arms? the way in which the 1848 text begins; and frankly how many people who arent Romanticists know anything about either text? What are we talking about here? [laughter] [laughs] The Romanticists know whats going on. Theyre not in any way hornswoggled by this historical conspiracy against the 1820 indicator text, and people who arent Romanticists dont care.